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What is Grammar and Punctuation? Grammar and punctuation rules exist to ensure other people understand what you say. Consistently poor grammar, punctuation or spelling can give the impression of a lack of care, and lack of clarity of thought. Inaccurate spelling and poor grammar and punctuation will also irritate your lecturer and impact your grades. If you are not sure, try and find out what is correct. This shows that you care about your work and have adopted a disciplined attitude to writing your assignments. One of the best ways to improve your writing skills is by reading widely and paying attention to how grammar and punctuation are used in other writing such as books and journal articles. We all have different areas in our writing where we could improve, that’s why it’s useful to be aware of the particular grammar and punctuation errors you are most likely to make. The more specific you can be about the areas on which you need to focus, the better. Don’t think that improving your grammar and punctuation is beyond you. You are probably doing a lot of things correctly and any errors you are making can be largely avoided once you know what to look out for and how to fix them. Any grammar and punctuation errors you are making are most likely because you are rushing, forgetting to proofread, or missing things while you are proofreading. |
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Grammar is the system used for organising language so that it makes sense. In college, grammar rules are particularly important as basic errors will affect the quality of your work, undermine your arguments and impact your grades. While it is normal for you to have areas to improve at the beginning of your time in college, as you progress with your course, it is expected that the quality of your grammar will do also. The secret to learning grammar is to learn a particular rule as and when you need it. In other words, when you identify a grammar error in your writing (from your own proofreading or from a lecturer’s feedback), find out the correct way to do it. Then, add this error to a checklist to help remind you to avoid it in the future. As you become more aware of the types of mistakes you make, you can specifically look out for them and correct them when checking your assignment drafts. Do not just rely on grammar-checking software to do the job for you as they are not always accurate and do not always understand the context of what you are trying to say. Working on your grammar will improve both your academic writing and your grades. |
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Punctuation is used to structure and organise your writing, making it clearer and easier for your reader to understand what you have written. Careless punctuation can change the meaning of what you are saying as well as making your assignment difficult to read. Working on your punctuation will improve your ability to write clearly and help to make sure your meaning is understood. There are a handful of mistakes that people often make in their writing and being able to identify these will help improve your writing. Some of the most common mistakes are as follows: |
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Microsoft Word The spelling and grammar checker in MS Word can be a useful tool to help you review your writing. When you’re ready to review your document, select Review. Highlight the whole document by pressing Ctrl+A and make sure English (Ireland) has been chosen as the language; then select Spelling and Grammar in the upper panel. The Editor will appear in the right panel and highlight areas for review but don’t just accept all changes without question. You have the option to follow the advice given, ignore that particular issue once or ignore all advice about the issue highlighted. |
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Google Docs For Google Docs, highlight the whole document, select Tools, Spelling and grammar, Spelling and grammar check. You will then be invited to ignore or accept recommended changes. |
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Draft Coach Turnitin's Draft Coach tool also provides a grammar check option. See our Turnitin Guide for instructions on how to access Draft Coach. |
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Other spelling and grammar resources Grammar Monster - https://www.grammar-monster.com/ Guide to Grammar and Writing - https://guidetogrammar.org/grammar/index.htm How to Spell - https://howtospell.co.uk/ Internet Grammar of English - https://www.ucl.ac.uk/internet-grammar/home.htm
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A few words of caution - never just accept the changes suggested by spelling and grammar checkers. While it is useful to use spelling and grammar software and other online resources to help you spot your errors, you can’t rely on them as they won’t know the context of what you are writing. The suggested changes may not be appropriate for what you have written and change the meaning and sense of what you are trying to say. Also, be cautious about online spelling and grammar checkers, some of them are specifically set up to take your assignments to sell on to other students. Ultimately it is down to you to learn the correct grammar, punctuation and spelling that you need as only you will know what you are trying to say. Rather than aiming to be a comprehensive guide to English grammar and punctuation, the explanations that follow in this section are designed to help you identify and reduce the specific errors you make in your writing and be less reliant on outside checkers. |
| A clause is a group of related words containing a subject and a verb which can be a whole sentence or just one part of a sentence. A clause is different from a phrase; a phrase can be just a few words such as "prior to this" or "in the health sector” that does not contain both a subject and a verb. In academic writing, it is likely that you will be writing sentences with more than one clause, so it is important that you understand how to structure the clauses in your sentences in order to make them clear and grammatically correct. There are two main types of clauses: | |
| Independent Clauses | Dependent Clauses |
| Also known as a main clause, this is a group of words that can stand on their own as a correct, complete sentence. As these clauses contain both a subject and a verb, they could survive by themselves – that is why they are called ‘independent’. | Also known as a subordinate clause, this is a section of a sentence which depends on another section to make sense. As a stand-alone sentence, it does not express a complete thought and sounds like there is information missing which is why it is called ‘dependent.’ The role of a dependent clause is to give us more information about the independent clause to which it is connected. They often start with a dependent word indicating that the sentence should be made up of two parts (or clauses). |
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| Words and Phrases Often Used to Introduce Dependent Clauses | |||||
| after | although | as | as a result | because | before |
| despite | even if | even though | if | in order that | once |
| provided that | rather than | since | though | unless | until |
| when | whenever | where | whereas | whether | while |
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Run-On Sentences Using Comma Splices You should not put two grammatically complete sentences together with just a comma; this is known as a comma splice (a type of run-on sentence) and can lead to sentences that are much too long, as well as being grammatically incorrect. Commas can separate independent clauses from dependent clauses, but they cannot separate two independent clauses together. Run-on sentences are one of the most common errors in college writing and are to be avoided. Not only are they grammatically incorrect, they also make your writing confusing and difficult to understand. For further information on Comma Splices, see Grammar and Punctuation Commas. |
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Other Run-On Sentences In addition to comma splices, run-on sentences can also be categorised as those that just go on too long. The recommended length for a sentence is approximately 15-20 words. If you read your sentence out loud and have to pause for breath too often, your sentence would probably benefit from being divided into two or more separate sentences. The longer sentences are, the harder they are to understand and follow; by reducing the number of verbs and clauses in one sentence, you can make your writing easier to read and understand. |
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Sentence Fragments These are groups of words that look like sentences, but actually aren’t complete sentences as they lack a subject, verb, or both; or they are dependent clauses that are not attached to an independent clause. Getting to know the difference between dependent and independent clauses can help you avoid sentence fragments as a dependent clause needs to be attached to an independent clause to make sense. Sentence fragments sound as if something is missing when read aloud as they do not express a complete thought so cannot stand on their own as a separate sentence. As shown above, they often start with a dependent word indicating that the sentence should be made up of at least two parts (or clauses).
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Subject-Verb Agreement Incorrect use of verb forms in relation to their subjects. Subject-verb agreement means that a subject and its verb must be both singular or both plural; you cannot have a singular subject combined with a plural verb or a plural subject combined with a singular verb. For further information, see Grammar and Punctuation Subject-Verb Agreement. |
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Verb Tense Consistency Be consistent—do not change verb tense in the middle of a sentence; unnecessary or inconsistent shifts in tense can cause confusion. For further information, see Grammar and Punctuation Verbs. |
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| In addition to checking your grammar and punctuation, it’s also important to take care with your spelling and word choices; unchecked, these can have an equally negative impact on the understanding of your writing. There are several different kinds of mistakes that you can make. | |
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Don’t Just Rely on Spell Checkers Be careful with computer spell checkers. If you misspell a word, the computer spell checker might correct it wrongly and insert a different word to that you intended. Microsoft Word or Google Docs may assume you are looking to use a different word than what you had in mind, or you may misspell a word yourself. If these alternative words correctly spell a different word to what you intended, checking software will not highlight them - without a thorough proofread of your own, you will not find these types of errors. Therefore, alongside the use of spell checkers, you need to do your own proofread of anything you have written before submission. If you over-rely on spell checkers, you may also set yourself up for problems during exams when you don’t have access to these checkers. |
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Commonly Confused Words There are some common words in English which sound the same but are spelt differently. Get to know the correct option for words that you regularly get confused.
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Be Careful with Word Choices Sometimes you can make a wrong word choice when you are trying to find an alternative word in a thesaurus or dictionary and end up using a word outside of its natural context and general usage. This isn’t the greatest strategy. While it’s always a good idea to look to expand your vocabulary by reading subject relevant material on your course, sometimes, it’s better just to keep it simple, and stick to words that you know you understand. Use a reliable, up-to-date dictionary, either print or online. Also, pay attention to how your lecturer and key readings spell certain words. Ideally use the English (Ireland) spelling option if using Word but if you do use English (United States), make sure that you are consistent throughout your assignment and don’t spell in two different ways.  |
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Make Your Own Checklist You may find it useful to keep a list of words that you have difficulty spelling correctly or confuse with other words. Keeping a personal checklist of these words next to you as you write will save you time and ultimately help you stop making the same spelling and word choice errors. |
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| Some languages use capitals for nouns however, you do not use capitals for common nouns in English. In academic writing it’s important to understand when and where to use capital letters. If you use capital letters for random words in your sentences or omit capitals where they are required, this can make your writing look untidy and unprofessional. |
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The first letter of the first word in a sentence |
Proper Nouns The names of specific people, places, organisations and brand names: Elon Musk, Ireland, National College of Ireland, Google |
Personal titles when used before a name: Prime Minister, Taoiseach, President |
North, South, East, and West when referring to sections or regions of a country or part of a proper noun: North America, South America *Do not capitalised when only referring to directions
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The days of the week, months, public holidays/religious festivals: Monday, January, Carnival, Christmas, Diwali, Easter, Halloween, Holi, Ramadan, Spring Festival. Capitals are not used for the names of the seasons
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The names of countries: Brazil, China, India, Ireland, Nigeria |
The names of continents: Asia, Europe, North America, South America |
The names of nationalities, language and groups of people: Brazilian, Chinese, Indian, Irish, Nigerian; English, Hindi, Mandarin, Portuguese; Africans, Asians, Europeans, South Americans |
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Religions and names of deities: Allah, Brahma, Buddhism,
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Names of cities, towns, villages: Dublin, Lagos, Mumbai, São Paulo, Shanghai |
Names of regions, states, districts, provinces, counties: Huáběi, Leinster, Maharashtra, Oyo State, Rio de Janeiro |
Public events: Olympic Games, St. Patrick’s Day, World Cup |
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Acronyms formed from the first letters of words: Central Statistics Office (CSO); human resources (HR); information and communication technology (ICT); National College of Ireland (NCI) |
All important words when referencing the titles of journals, conferences, newspapers, magazines: Harvard Business Review, Irish Times, Economist |
For specific government matters such Consumer Protection Act; Department If just referring to the government in general then it is presented as lower The government has outlined… |
Names of specific buildings and landmarks: Croke Park; General Post Office |
| Other Recommendations for Use of Capitals | ||
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Always reproduce capitals in the same way they are presented in the original source you are consulting
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Do not capitalise words if it is not commonly done so in the reading and research you’re looking at.
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Be consistent with capitalisation in headings and lists
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Grammar
| Verbs are words that describe an action or state of being. When revising, editing and proofreading your work, there are three common verb errors to avoid – parallel structure, use of verb tenses and combining prepositions with verbs. |
| A common problem in writing is ensuring that when you list a number of components or verbs in a sentence, you keep the same grammatical structure. Parallel structure is when you use the same way of describing several things in a list. Items presented in a series within the same sentence should follow the same word form. Correctly following parallel structure helps your writing flow, creating word patterns that your readers can follow more easily while errors in parallel structure can make your writing harder to follow and understand. Readers expect items in a series to appear in parallel grammatical form. When this doesn’t happen, it can make a sentence or list needlessly awkward and grammatically incorrect. Below are examples of applying a parallel structure: |  |
| Examples: | ||
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The author argues that gender imbalance results in affecting the morale of the employees, decreases business profitability and reduces the capability of the business to gain a competitive advantage.
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The author argues that gender imbalance results in affecting the morale of the employees, decreasing business profitability and reducing the capability of the business to gain a competitive advantage.
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The author argues that gender imbalance affects the morale of the employees, decreases business profitability and reduces the capability of the business to gain a competitive advantage.
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| There is an imbalance between 'affecting', 'decreases' and 'reduces' in the above sentence. | There is a balance between 'affecting', 'decreasing' and 'reducing' in the above sentence. | There is a balance between 'affects', 'decreases' and 'reduces' in the above sentence. |
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The same is true when two ideas are paired together with connecting words; these ideas should also follow the same grammatical form. Examples:
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When using bulleted or numbered lists, as well as formal outlines, make sure they are also parallel. Examples:
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A parallel structure that begins with clauses must keep on with clauses; changing to another pattern breaks the parallelism. Examples: |
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The HR manager recommended to the staff that they should get plenty of sleep, that they should not eat too unhealthily, and to do some exercise during the week.
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The HR manager recommended to the staff that they should get plenty of sleep, that they should not eat too unhealthily, and that they should do some exercise during the week.
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The HR manager recommended to the staff that they should get plenty of sleep, not eat too unhealthily, and do some exercise during the week.
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| When you are revising, editing and proofreading your work, consider the tense of the verbs you have used when reviewing the grammar. Below are a few elements to look at: |  |
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Be consistent—do not change verb tense in the middle of a sentence; unnecessary or inconsistent shifts in tense can cause confusion. Examples: |
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After the survey was conducted, we analyse the results and found that most students prefer face-to-face learning.
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After the survey was conducted, we analysed the results and found that most students prefer face-to-face learning.
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In the first example, 'analyse' and 'found' are not the same tense, while in the correct example 'analysed' and 'found' are the same tense |
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Present tense: In general, try and use the present tense particularly when you are citing evidence from authors that is still valid and current at the time of writing as this adds immediacy and currency to your work. However, there are also times when the past tense is used as detailed below. Past tense: If you are reporting on your own or others’ specific research activities (such as methods that were used, or results that were found) then you would generally use the past tense. Also, if the research being referred to was written some time ago or you are referring to an historical event, you may also use the past tense. Also, if you are discussing methodology that you have carried out in your research, you will use the past tense for this discussion. Examples: |
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In the year 2017, it is revealed that only 18.9% of ICT specialists are women.
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In the year 2017, it was revealed that only 18.9% of ICT specialists were women.
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As revealed is in the past tense, 'is' and 'are' are not in the same tense. In the correct example 'was' and 'were' are both in the past tense, consistent with revealed. |
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Some verbs are commonly used with prepositions (in, at, with, on etc.). Verbs can be associated with one or several prepositions, for example: agree with/on/to; look at/over; think about/of, but errors can occur when verbs that don’t require a preposition have one added or a verb is matched with the wrong preposition.
Examples: |
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| Focus in |  |
Discuss on | |
Explain about | |
Emphasise on | |
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| Only used as a verb in the context of photography | Discuss about | |
Explain |  |
Emphasise | |
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| Focus on | |
Discuss | |
Place an emphasis on | |
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| Looking at a specific thing or things | ||||||||
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Subject-verb agreement means that a subject and its verb must be both singular or both plural; in other words, verbs need to agree with nouns (subjects). The verb chosen must agree with its subject in form and meaning to make your writing clear and accurate. |
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| A singular subject takes a singular verb | A plural subject takes a plural verb | ||
| Examples: | Examples: | ||
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The student was late for the lecture
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This is the objective that needs to be addressed
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The students were late for the lecture
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These are the objectives that need to be addressed
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| As the subject here is singular, the verb is also singular, ‘was’ | As the subject here is singular, the verb is also singular has an ‘s’ | As the subject here is plural, the verb is also plural, ‘were’ | As the subject here is plural, the verb is also plural and does not take an ‘s’ |
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The key to successfully matching your subject and verb is correctly recognising the subject controlling the verb and then identifying whether it is singular or plural; this can be more difficult in longer and more complex sentences. Subjects can consist of a single word - a noun – but can also contain several words that form a noun phrase. There can sometimes be a lot of information between the subject and the verb in academic writing, so you need to check carefully which noun your verb relates to. When intervening phrases or words come between the subject and the verb, the verb should still agree with the original subject, not the intervening phrases or words in between. A good way to correctly identify the subject is to simplify the sentence by reading it without the intervening words. Examples: |
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The number of students on the course are less than last year.
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The number of students on the course is less than last year.
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Here the subject is 'The number of students on the course'; they key word is 'number' which is singular. Therefore, the verb must be singular 'is'. Note: 'the number of' is always a singular subject; 'a number of' is always a plural subject. |
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When two or more singular subjects are joined by the word ‘and’, they are usually considered plural. Examples: |
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Careful planning and a basic understanding of the task is important for writing a good assignment.
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Careful planning and a basic understanding of the task are important for writing a good assignment.
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'Careful planning and a basic understanding of the task' are the subject of the verb and as they make a plural together, the verb has to be plural: 'are' rather than 'is'. |
| When there is one subject and more than one verb, the verbs throughout the sentence must agree with the subject. This means consistency in whether the verb is singular or plural as well as being written in the same form and tense. See more information on parallel structure under Grammar and Punctuation Verbs. |  |
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Certain indefinite pronouns - anybody, anyone, each, everybody, everyone, everything, nobody, no one, one, somebody and someone - usually take a singular verb with an ‘s’. In particular, everybody and everyone sound like groups but grammatically they behave like singular subjects. Examples: |
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Each of these interviews were conducted.
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Each of these interviews was conducted.
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Here the subject is ‘Each of these interviews’; the key word is ‘each’ which is singular. Therefore, the verb must be singular ‘was’. |
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Recognising countable and uncountable nouns is another part of subject-verb agreement. Nouns are described as countable if they can be both singular and plural. Uncountable nouns (nouns that cannot be counted or numbered) are generally only singular. An uncountable noun generally only has one collective form; for example: advice, economics, evidence, health, information, knowledge, literature, news, research, training, weather – none of these nouns are converted into a plural form. See more information on Countable & Uncountable Nouns under Grammar and Punctuation Articles. Examples: |
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Some of the policies were rejected…
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Some of the research was conducted…
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In the first example, 'policies' is a plural countable noun In the second example, 'research' is an uncountable noun |
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When sentences begin with ‘there is’, ‘there are’, ‘there was’ or ‘there were’, the verb agrees with the noun that follows, reflecting whether ‘there’ is referring to a singular or plural subject. Examples: |
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There is flexibility…
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There are many advantages…
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In the first example, the subject is ‘flexibility’ which is singular, therefore, the verb must be singular ‘is’. In the second example, the subject is ‘advantages’ which is plural, therefore, the verb must be plural ‘are’ |
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Collective nouns are words that might appear plural because they involve more than one person but they are mostly used in the singular as they are seen as one coherent unit. For example, company, group, family. Examples: |
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The government has made an important decision.
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The government have made an important decision.
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Some collective nouns which are grammatically singular may sometimes be followed by a plural verb form when the noun is referring to individuals within the group as in the second example. |
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‘Or’ or ‘nor’, ‘either…or’ or ‘neither…nor’ can also cause problems. The verb form is usually determined by the subject that is closest to the verb. Examples: |
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Neither the other women nor interviewee A is unfulfilled in that respect.
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Neither interviewee A nor the other women are unfulfilled in that respect.
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Note that the second example sounds better. This is because when a singular and a plural subject are connected in this way, you usually put the plural subject last and use a plural verb. |
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Nouns that are plural in form but singular in meaning (for example, economics) usually require a singular verb. In the same way, an amount, quantity or number thought of as a whole (for example, six years) takes a singular verb. Examples: |
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Economics is an essential business module in college.
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Six years is a long time.
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Nouns that are singular in form but plural in meaning (for example, people) usually require a plural verb. Examples: |
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Many people has changed their work-life balance
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Many people have changed their work-life balance
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When pronouns stand in as the subject, you need to look for the real subject elsewhere in the sentence to determine agreement for the verb. Like other subject-verb agreement problems, noun-pronoun agreement problems happen when the two are separated by intervening words. If the noun (subject) that the pronoun refers to is singular, then the pronoun should be singular. If the noun (subject) is plural, the pronoun should be plural. Pronouns are words - such as ‘he’, ‘I’, ‘it’, ‘she’, ‘that’, ‘they’, ‘we’, ‘which’, ‘who’, ‘you’ - that are used as substitutes for nouns or noun phrases. |
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Revise, Edit & Proofread Most subject-verb agreement mistakes can be detected and fixed if you spend some time revising, editing and proofreading your writing. To ensure that your verb agrees with the subject, ask yourself which single word in the subject is truly controlling the verb. |
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Articles are the words that come before nouns and in the English language, there are three: ‘a’, ‘an’ and ‘the’. Their role is to indicate whether the noun is something specific and is already known by the reader (definite), or whether it is something unknown or non-specific (indefinite). In academic writing, it is sometimes difficult to know which article to use, or whether it is necessary to use one at all. Some languages do not have an equivalent grammatical construction while others do not use articles in the same way so it can be difficult to get used to if English is not your first language. The following information should help you to minimise mistakes in this area. |
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| Whether a noun is definite or indefinite depends on whether you and your reader both know what you are referring to. That is, is it something specific or more general. | |||||
| Definite Article | Indefinite Article | ||||
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‘the’ is the definite article and refers to a specific noun (singular or plural). For example, that particular one (singular) or those particular ones (plural).
Examples: |
‘a’ or ‘an’ is the indefinite article and refers to a general thing or type of thing - any noun in that group rather than a particular one. It is only used for singular nouns. The use of ‘a’ or ‘an’ depends on the noun that follows it. Examples: |
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| the company | the companies |
You generally use ‘a’ if the following noun starts with a consonant sound: |
You generally use ‘an’ if the following noun starts with a vowel sound: |
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The definite article is used:
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When adjectives are used to describe nouns, you will need to choose an indefinite article based on the adjective that precedes the noun. Like indefinite articles for nouns, if the adjective begins with a consonant sound, use ‘a’, if it begins with a vowel sound, use ‘an’
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| To use articles correctly, you must also be able to recognise if a noun is countable or uncountable because how you use them is different. Some nouns are countable in other languages but uncountable in English so it’s important to get familiar with the rules for countable and uncountable nouns in English. While there are some exceptions to the rules, the basic guidelines are outlined below: | |||||||||||||||||
| Countable Nouns | |||||||||||||||||
| Nouns are described as countable if they can be both singular and plural (assignment, assignments; book, books). For countable nouns, the normal guidelines apply in terms of using a definite or indefinite article. | |||||||||||||||||
| Uncountable Nouns | |||||||||||||||||
| Uncountable nouns (nouns that cannot be counted or numbered) are generally singular and do not need an article. An uncountable noun generally only has one collective form, such as: | |||||||||||||||||
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However, you can refer to multiples in association with uncountable nouns by adding words that describe quantity such as:
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Examples:
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Uncountable nouns do not take ‘s’, do not take the indefinite article (a/an) and are not combined with certain plural determiners such as: many, these. Examples: |
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An uncountable noun can also be turned into a specific noun which then requires a definite article. Examples: Research looked at this issue…. (meaning research in general) The research looked at this issue…. (meaning specific research that you are referring to) |
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| Leave Out the Article | |||
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Examples: |
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The information from the internet is frequently inaccurate
(implies specific information) |
…for the greater benefits of the society
(implies a specific society) |
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Information from the internet is frequently inaccurate
(implies information in general) |
…for the greater benefits of society
(implies society in general) |
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| Include the Article | |||
| Examples: | |||
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…the development of wide range of skills in the students involved
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It will be necessary to assess to what extent the people in study are using these techniques
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…the development of a wide range of skills in the students involved
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It will be necessary to assess to what extent the people in the study are using these techniques
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Pronouns are words which refer to or stand in for nouns in a sentence. They are used to refer to something quickly, add variety to your writing and avoid repetition. | |||
| Ambiguous Pronouns | ||||
| A common error is to make the meaning of your writing unclear by using ambiguous pronouns. A pronoun error can occur when you use a pronoun and it’s not clear what the pronoun is referring to. For example, read the following sentences: | ||||
| “Considering the political involvement of students in Ireland, another study was carried out by Abrahams and Brooks (2019). In it, their influence on society is assessed.” | |
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This is a potentially confusing sentence as it is not 100% clear whose influence is being referred to, “students in Ireland” or “Abraham and Brooks”? A better sentence would be: |
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| "Considering the political involvement of students in Ireland, another study was carried out by Abrahams and Brooks (2019). In their research, the students’ influence on society is assessed." | |
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Punctuation
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The most important punctuation mark after the full-stop, commas are used to separate the elements of a sentence into sections, improving the clarity of your writing. These are the signs that alert readers to the appropriate pauses in your text and how you intend the text to be read. This helps to avoid confusion, allowing someone to make sense of what they are reading. The inclusion or exclusion of a comma can significantly change the meaning of a sentence. Sometimes you can identify natural pauses by reading your writing out loud which often indicates the need for a comma.
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Use a comma to separate the main clause from a dependent or subordinate clause in a sentence when the dependent clause comes first. The dependent clause can’t stand alone as it is usually missing a subject or a verb or both and needs the further words to follow to make sense.
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Use a comma to separate the inclusion of nonessential, additional information from the main topic or idea of the sentence. Also known as a non-restrictive clause, this information is not essential to the meaning of the sentence and can be removed from the sentence without changing its basic meaning. The nonessential, additional information has been used as an aside to add to or elaborate on the detail being discussed in the sentence. As non-restrictive clauses are set apart from the rest of the sentence by commas, it’s important not to forget the second comma if the information is included in the middle of a sentence.
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This should not be confused with the inclusion of an essential (restrictive) clause where the information is vital to a full understanding of the sentence. Here, you do not use a comma as a restrictive element cannot be deleted without changing the sentence's basic meaning.
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Use commas to separate introductory words or phrases that are not part of the main idea but simply introduce the sentence. This could be clarifying or background information or a word or phrase that helps connect the sentence to the preceding and/or following sentences. Placing a comma after introductory words or phrases helps your reader to know the main information of the sentence is yet to come. Common words/phrases that are used to begin introductory words/phrases or stand alone include:
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Use a comma to separate two or more adjectives that separately modify the same noun. If you can insert ‘and’ between the adjectives and it still makes sense, then it requires a comma.
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However, if an adjective is modifying another adjective you do not separate them with a comma.
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Use commas to separate three or more items in a series or list. Always use ‘and’ to separate the last two items in your list. The final comma before the ‘and’ is generally not needed unless you have a complex list where the grouping of items may be unclear.
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Use a comma before certain coordinating conjunctions when connecting two independent clauses. These coordinating conjunctions are:
While it is possible to leave out the comma in shorter sentences, if the sentence is a long and complex one it is best to use a comma to make it easier to read.
You cannot always assume that when you use one of these conjunctions you will need a comma, it depends on the content and types of sentences. If the conjunction does not connect two independent clauses, you do not need a comma before the conjunction. Also note, these words (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) can all be used within a sentence without acting as a conjunction and may not require a comma in that context. In addition, it is not usually necessary or even correct to use a comma with the conjunction ‘because’. |
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Use a comma to separate quoted or paraphrased words from the rest of the sentence.
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Use a comma to separate a final phrase or afterthought at the end of a sentence
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Use a comma to set apart geographical names
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Use a comma to separate items in dates. You separate the month from the year where the date of the month is included but not the month from the date.
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Use a comma to separate the author name(s) and year for in-text Harvard and APA referencing
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Use a comma to separate the first digit of a four-digit number, the first two digits of a five-digit number, the first three digits of a six-digit number etc. for quantities.
The comma is not used when referring to a particular year. |
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One of the most common punctuation errors in college writing is using just a comma between two complete sentences when you actually need a full stop, a semi-colon or a conjunction. You should not put two grammatically complete sentences together with just a comma; this is known as a comma splice (a type of run-on sentence) and can lead to sentences that are much too long, as well as being grammatically incorrect. If the clauses either side of the comma can both stand alone as complete sentences, they should have a full stop, semi-colon or an appropriate linking word between them; a comma is not strong enough punctuation to prevent a run-on sentence. Left uncorrected, comma splices can cloud the understanding of what you are trying to say and are considered errors in academic writing.
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Colons are used to introduce a list, a description, or an explanation, demonstrating or elaborating on whatever was previously stated. The words preceding the colon create an expectation of what to anticipate next; the words following the colon help to fulfil it. Unlike a semicolon, the information that follows a colon does not have to be in the form of an independent clause. Semi-Colons, while not as common as other punctuation, used correctly, can be a useful additional punctuation mark as they can provide a pause that is stronger than a comma but weaker than a full stop. They can also be effective when used to join longer sentences, particularly when building an argument but it is advisable to use semicolons sparingly. As a general rule, if a full-stop would not work to separate the sentences, then neither will a semicolon. |
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A colon can introduce a list, for example, when ‘the following’ or ‘as follows’ are used. The sentence preceding the colon needs to make sense on its own. Do not use a colon when the listed items are incorporated into the flow of the sentence.
A colon can introduce examples.
A colon can separate the title and subtitle of a source when referencing books, journal articles and webpages.
A colon is placed between the place of publication and the publisher details for both Harvard and IEEE referencing.
A colon is placed after the abbreviation doi and before the numbers in Harvard and IEEE referencing.
A colon can sometimes be used to introduce a quote if not integrated into the sentence.
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A semicolon can be used instead of a full stop to help signify a connection between two sentences when the theme or content of the sentences is closely related with the second one continuing a point made in the first.
A semicolon can be used to separate items in a long or more complicated list that already includes commas or features items made up of several words; the semicolons help to indicate more clearly where each element begins and ends.
A semi-colon is also used for in-text Harvard and APA referencing when grouping two or more references together in brackets.
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Apostrophes are often left out or incorrectly used in writing which can change the meaning of your sentences. Apostrophes are used in two main ways – (a) to indicate possession (for example, a student’s punctuation) and (b) to indicate contractions where letters are missing (for example, can’t instead of cannot). However, contractions are not used in academic writing as they make your writing seem colloquial or unprofessional (see Features of Academic Writing: Formal). Therefore, the main focus for you as a college student is to understand the correct use of the possessive apostrophe, the correct use of ‘its’ and the correct form of plurals. Common errors around apostrophes include:
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Rules for when and how to use apostrophes: |
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The apostrophe is used to show possession or ownership or connection. The placement of the apostrophe depends on whether there is one possessor/owner or more than one possessor/owner. In other words, it depends on whether the noun is singular (one person or entity) or plural (multiple persons or entities) and whether the noun already ends in ‘s’. |
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You will only use ‘its’ without an apostrophe when this indicates possession and means ‘belonging to it’. ‘It’s’ is a contraction which means ‘it is’ or ‘it has’ and contractions are not used in academic writing.
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For singular nouns add an apostrophe followed by an 's'
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For singular nouns that already end in an 's' Add an apostrophe or an apostrophe followed by an 's', both are acceptable depending on whether the additional 's' is pronounced in spoken English or not.
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For one person where the name already ends in 's' Add an apostrophe or an apostrophe followed by an 's', both are acceptable depending on whether the additional 's' is pronounced in spoken English or not.
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For plural nouns where the word does not end in 's', add an apostrophe followed by an 's'.
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For collective nouns when the word is singular but the meaning of the word indicates multiple people or things, add an apostrophe followed by an 's'
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For plural nouns that already end in an 's', just add an apostrophe
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For indefinite pronouns (such as anybody, anyone, everybody, everyone, nobody, no one, one, somebody, someone), add an apostrophe followed by an 's'
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For expressions relating to time, distance and value in the singular, add an apostrophe followed by an 's'
For expressions relating to time, distance and value in the plural, just add an apostrophe
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For acronyms, add an apostrophe followed by an 's' even if the last letter of the acronym is 's'
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Apostrophes are almost never used to make the plural form of words.
One of the few exceptions is when pluralising lowercase letters, where you add an apostrophe followed by an 's'. Example: a’s, b’s and c’s. |
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While you can add an apostrophe followed by an 's' after an author name, this sentence construction can look a little clumsy.
You could alternatively construct the sentence to avoid the need for the apostrophe.
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| When referring to decades as a plural, do not use an apostrophe, 1990s NOT 1990’s. However, if you refer to something that belonging to that time, you would still use an apostrophe. For example, 1990’s fashion. |
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For possessive pronouns, do not use an apostrophe as they already indicate possession.
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For acronyms in plural, do not use an apostrophe
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| Who's or Whose | |
| ‘who’s’ is a contraction for ‘who is’ or ‘who has’ | whose is used to indicate possession |
| You're or Your | |
| ‘you’re’ is a contraction of ‘you are’ | your is used to indicate possession |
| They're or There or Their | ||
| ‘they’re’ is a contraction of ‘they are’ | ‘there’ refers to a place/location or introduces a statement | their is used to indicate possession |
| We're or Were | |
| ‘we’re’ is a contraction of ‘we are’ | ‘were’ is past plural of ‘to be’, as in ‘we were doing something’ |
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